Sandstone is a sedimentary rock group which is mostly made up of tiny grains of quartz. Most sandstone is formed in oceans, lakes and rivers where tiny bits of rock and dirt settle to the bottom. Year after year, these layers of sand get buried under tons of more sand and dirt until it is turned into solid rock. Sandstone can be found in many colors.
Physically, they are very Hard, Compact, Fine grained, equi-granular homogeneous rocks of sedimentary nature (Sandstone)
| Color | Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit. |
| Hardness | 6.5 to 7 on Moh's Scale |
| Density | 2.3 to 2.4 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 90 to 140 N/mm2 |
| Modulus of Rupture | 16-40 N/mm2 |
| Water Absorption | 1.0 - 1.2 % |
| Porosity | Low to very low. |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
Chemically they are very resistant Mono-Mineralic rocks, principally composed of silica. The other minor constituents vary from origin to origin.
| SiO2 | 95-97% |
| Iron (Fe2O3) | 0.5%-1.5% |
| Alumina (Al2O3) | 1 to 1.5% |
| Soda (Na2O) & Potash (Kro) | Less then 1% |
| Lime (CaO) | Less then 0.5% |
| Magnesia (MgO) | Less then 0.5% |
| Loss On Ignition (LOI) | Less then 0.5% |
They are highly resistant to acids, alkalies and thermal impact. Insolubility in acids and alkalies is about 97%
Teakwood and Rainbow sandstones differ from above physical properties
| Hardness | 6 to 6.5 on Moh's Scale |
| Density | 2.07 to 2.11 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 41 to 63 N/mm2 |
| Modulus of Rupture | 7-11 N/mm2 |
| Water Absorption | 8.0 - 11 % |
| Porosity | Comparatively Porous |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
They are highly resistant to acids, alkalies and thermal impact. Insolubility in acids and alkalies is about 97%
Marble, formed from limestone with heat and pressure over years in the earth's crust. These pressure or forces cause the limestone to change in texture and makeup. The process is called recrystallization. Fossilized materials in the limestone, along with its original carbonate minerals, recrystallize and form large, coarse grains of calcite.
Impurities present in the limestone during the recrystallization period affect the mineral composition of the marble which is formed. At relatively low temperatures, silica impurities in the carbonate minerals form masses of chert or crystals of quartz. At higher temperatures, the silica reacts with the carbonates to produce diopside and forsterite. At a very high temperatures, rarer calcium minerals, such as larnite, monticellite, and rankinite, forms in the marble. If water is present, serpentine, talc, and certain other hydrous minerals may be produced. The presence of iron, alumina, and silica may result in the formation of hematite and magnetite.
The minerals that result from impurities give marble a wide variety of colors. The purest calcite marble is white in colour. Marble containing hematite are reddish in color. Marble that has limonite is yellow, and marble with serpentine is green in colour.
Marble does not split easily into sheets of equal size and must be mined with care. The rock may shatter if explosives are used. Blocks of marble are mined with channeling machines, which cut grooves and holes in the rock. Miners outline a block of marble with rows of grooves and holes. They then drive wedges into the openings and separate the block from the surrounding rock. The blocks are cut with saws to the desired shape and size.
Physically, these are recrystallized, Hard, Compact, fine to very fine grained metamorphosed rocks capable of taking shining polish.
| Color | Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit. |
| Hardness | 3 to 4 on Moh's Scale |
| Density | 2.55 to 2.7 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 70 to 140 N/mm2 |
| Modulus of Rupture | 12 to 18 N/mm2 |
| Water Absorption | Less than 0.5% (except Rainforest Green/Brown with 2-3%) |
| Porosity | Quite low |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
Marble has always been highly valued for its beauty, strength, and resistance to fire and erosion. The ancient Iranian & Greeks were good user of marble in their buildings and statues. The Italian artist Michelangelo used marble from Carrara, Italy, in a number of sculptures. Marble from Tennessee was used in parts of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. The Lincoln Memorial, also in Washington, was built of marble from Alabama, Colorado, and Georgia.
Very pure calcite marble is used for most statues. They are translucent. Large blocks of colored marble are used for columns, floors, and other parts of buildings. Smaller pieces of marble are crushed or finely ground and used as abrasives in soaps and other such products. Crushed or ground marble is also used in paving roads and in manufacturing roofing materials and soil treatment products.
Marbles show variety of textures on account of existing minerals & re-crystallization patterns. Texture depends upon form, size, uniformity of grain arrangements
Marbles can be classified on the basis of the following factors :-
| Calcite Marble - Mostly CaCo3; MgCo3<0.50% |
| Dolomite Marble - Having > 40% MgCo3 |
| Magnesium Marble - MgCo3 between 5 to 40% |
| Serpentine Marble - remobilised marble due to the effect of Thermodynamic metamorphic wherein serpentine is prominent |
| Onyx Marble - Lime carbonate deposition on account of cold water solution activity |
The following are the major mineral impurities in marble:
| Quartz |
| Tremolite Actinolite |
| Chert |
| Garnet |
| Biotite |
| Muscovite |
| Microline |
| Talc |
| Fosterite |
The following are the major chemical impurities in marble:
| SiO2 |
| Fe2O3 |
| 2Fe2O3 |
| 3H2O |
| Limonite |
| Manganese |
| Al2O3 |
| FeS2(pyrite) |
On account of the mineral composition of marble the colour variations
The parent rock for quartzite is quartz-rich sandstone. As sandstone becomes deeply buried, rising temperature will fuse the quartz grains together forming the extremely hard and weather-resistant rock quartzite. Like marble, quartzite comes in many colors, but when pure it is light-colored. Quartzite tends to have a sugary appearance, and when broken the fractures cut through the sand grains, not around them as with a sandstone.
Physically, they are very Hard, Compact, Fine grained, equi-granular homogeneous rocks of metamorphic nature (Quartzite).
| Color | Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit. |
| Hardness | 6.5 to 7 on Moh's Scale |
| Density | 2.3 to 2.4 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 90 to 140 N/mm2 |
| Modulus of Rupture | 16-40 N/mm2 |
| Water Absorption | 1.0 - 1.2 % |
| Porosity | Low to very low. |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
Chemically they are very resistant Mono-Mineralic rocks, principally composed of silica. The other minor constituents vary from origin to origin.
| SiO2 | 95-97% |
| Iron (Fe2O3) | 0.5%-1.5% |
| Alumina (Al2O3) | 1 to 1.5% |
| Soda (Na2O) & Potash (Kro) | Less then 1% |
| Lime (CaO) | Less then 0.5% |
| Magnesia (MgO) | Less then 0.5% |
| Loss On Ignition (LOI) | Less then 0.5% |
They are highly resistant to acids, alkalies and thermal impact. Insolubility in acids and alkalies is about 97%
Granite, from igneous rock, is a very hard, crystalline, and primarily composed of feldspar, quartz accompanied by one or more dark minerals. It is visibly homogeneous in texture.
The term "Granite" means "grain" in Latin word "Granum" because of its granular nature.
Granite is the hardest building stone, and granite slabs and granite tiles occupy a prominent place among dimensional stones. Due to its hardness, resistance to weathering, capability to take mirror polish, fascinating colors and textural patterns, granite slabs and granite tiles are extremely popular.
The principal characteristics of granite also include high load bearing capacity, crushing strength, abrasive strength, amenability to cutting and shaping without secondary flaws, ability to yield thin and large slabs and - above all - durability.
Due to highly dense grain, it is impervious to stain. Polished granite slabs and granite tiles have achieved a special status as building stones globally. Granite is also used for wall cladding, roofing, flooring, and a variety of other interior and exterior applications.
India is one of the largest producers of granites blocks and processed granite slabs and granite tiles. Granites from leading Indian exporters are listed here.
Physically, commercial granites are Hard, Compact rocks with fine to coarse grains of metamorphic or igneous origin.
| Color | Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit. |
| Hardness | 6.5 to 7 on Moh's Scale |
| Density | 2.6 to 2.8 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 140 to 210 N/mm2 |
| Modulus of Rupture | 15 to 25 N/mm2 |
| Water Absorption | 0.1-0.6% |
| Average Wear | Less then 1% |
| Porosity | Quite low |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
Chemically, they are igneous/metamorphic rocks composed of quartz, feldspar & ferromagnesian minerals like kriolite, chlorite, garnet, etc. A typical granite will have following chemical composition:
| Silica (SiO2) | 70-75% |
| Al2O3 | 10-15% |
| CaO+MgO | Less then 0.5% |
| FeO + Fe2O3 | 2-4% |
| Alkalies | 4-6% |
| TiO2 | Less then 0.5% |
| Loss On Ignition (LOI) | Less then 0.5% |
Limestone is calcareous sedimentary rocks formed at the bottom of lakes and seas with the accumulation of shells, bones and other calcium rich goods. It is composed of calcite (CaCO3). The organic matter upon which it settles in lakes or seas, are preserved as fossils. Over thousands and millions of years, layer after layer is built up adding weight. The heat and pressure causes chemical reaction at the bottom and the sediments turn into solid stone, the limestone.
The rock which contain more than 95% of calcium carbonate is known as high-calcium limestone. Recrystallised limestone takes good polish and is usually used as decorative and building stone.
A part of calcium molecules if being replaced by magnesium, it is known as magnesium lime stone or dolomite limestone.
Limestone that will take a polish are considered marbles by most people, but technically, if there are still shells visible or the structure is not crystalline, it is still a limestone.
Physically, Limestones are Quite impervious, Hard, Compact, fine to very fine grained calcareous rocks of sedimentary nature.
| Hardness | 3 to 4 on Moh's Scale |
| Density | 2.5 to 2.7 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 60-170 N/mm2 |
| Water Absorption | Less than 1% |
| Porosity | Quite low |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
Chemically, they are calcareous rocks principally of calcic minerals with minor amounts of alumina, ferric & alkaline oxides.
| Lime (CaO) | 38-42% |
| Silica (SiO2) | 15-18% |
| Alumina (Al2O3) | 3-5% |
| MgO | 0.5 to 3% |
| FeO + Fe2O3 | 1-1.5% |
| Alkalies | 1-1.5% |
| Loss On Ignition (LOI) | 30-32% |
Note :-Limestone, like marble and other calcareous stones, are referred to as acid sensitive. Calcareous stones are readily dissolved in acid, therefore acidic products should not be used on limestone and marbles.
Slates are dense and fine grained rock. The colour of slates are generally gray, red, brown and green ranging from dark to light. It is produced by the compression of clays, shale, and various other rocks developing a characteristic cleavage consisting sericite and quartz with biotite, chlorite, and hematite as principal accessories.
In other words slates are generally formed by low-grade regional metamorphism of pelithic sediments or fine-grained tuffs. It can be associated with other metamorphic sedimentary or volcanic rocks.
Slates are or argillaceous origin of metamorphic rocks and can also be defined as a layered stone. Fossils may be sometimes preserved in slate but are invariably distorted. Folds are often apparent in the field. Too fine-grained are tough to distinguished with the naked eye.
Physically these are Metamorphic-Argillaceous rocks, which has developed a well-marked splittable cleavages with or without developed recrystallization & spots/knots of minerals like garnet, pyrite, andulasite, etc. They are normally fine to medium grained, moderately hard & compact, less homogeneous with varying textures & shades. It has an ability to split into thin layers along the plane of cleavages due to flattened & elongated minerals along the plane of cleavage.
| Hardness | 3.0 to 4.0 on Moh's scale |
| Density | 2.6 to 2.8 Kg/cm3 |
| Compressive Strength | 24 to 36 N/mm2 |
| Modulus of Rupture | 22 to 34 N/mm2 |
| Specific Gravity | 2.65 to 2.80 |
| Water Absorption | 1.5 to 2% |
| Porosity | Low to very low |
| Weather Impact | Resistant |
| Corrodibility | 0.4 to 0.7% |
Chemically they are Multi-Mineral, metamorphic argilaceous rocks made of an aggregate of minerals and colloidal substances. Essentially mineral composition includes quartz, mica, chlorite, sericite & oxides of iron with occasional spots/knots of minerals like garnet, pyrite, andulasite, etc.
| Silica (SiO2) | 55-65% |
| Iron (Fe2O3) | 4%-8% |
| Alumina (Al2O3) | 15 to 20% |
| Soda (Na2O) & Potash (K2O) | 2-4% |
| Lime (CaO) | 0.5-1% |
| Magnesia (MgO) | 0.5-3% |
| TiO2 | 0.4-0.5% |
| Loss On Ignition (LOI) | 3-4% |
It is fairly resistant to acids and staining.
The name comes from the Greek word onyx which means nail of a finger or claw. Legend says that one day while Venus was sleeping Eros/Cupid cut her fingernails and left the clippings scattered on the ground. Because no part of a heavenly body can die, the gods turned them into stone which later became known as onyx.
It is a member of the chalcedony family which also includes carnelian, agate, bloodstone, etc. Occuring naturally in a variety of colors, black onyx is polished to enhance appearance, a member of the quartz family.
Originally, almost all colors of chalcedony from white to dark brown and black were called onyx (SiO2 with impurities). Today when we think of onyx we often preface the word with black to distinguish it from other varieties of onyx that come in white, reddish brown, brown and banded. A variety of onyx that is reddish brown with white and lighter reddish bands is known as sardonyx.
Onyx is a form of chalcedony, part of the quartz group. Like the other stones in the chalcedony family, onyx has a smooth, waxy luster. Onyx can be found in a wide range of colors, often layered.
| Specific Gravity : | 2.58 - 2.64 |
| Refractive Index : | 1.55 - 1.54 |
| Hardness : | 6.5 - 7.0 on Moh's scale |
Chemical Properties of Onyx
| Formula : | SiO2 |
| Elements : | Si and O |
Thin Flexible Stone Veneers are thin, lightweight, flexible stone material; they are so innovative that they can be applied to any surface or shape. You can create your own expression of style. Transform ordinary spaces with the look and touch of stone, without the difficulty and expense of traditional stonework. Our Thin Flexible Stone Veneers are a breakthrough in easy-to-work with, authentic surfacing technology.
Standard Sheet Size :: 1220 mm x 610 mm / 4 ft. x 2 ft. / 48 inches x 24 inches, larger & smaller sizes are available on request.
Standard Weight Each Sheet :: Approximate 1.50 Kilograms with thickness of 1 mm to 1.50 mm (approximately 1.2 to 1.6 kilograms per square meter (approx 0.25 gms per sq foot).
Standard Thickness :: 1 mm to 1.50 mm
Storage :: Thin Flexible Stone Veneer sheets should be stored face-up in a cool, dry area and in a completely supported flat position. Do not store on edge or coiled.
Special :: Do not expose to direct flame.
Gluing :: The backside of the Thin Flexible Stone Veneers are treated with polyester backing. It is now possible to glue these sheets with common dispersion glues, hot melts and PUR (Polyurethane Reactive) glues onto a variety of carrier materials such as wood, fiber, cement boards and gypsum panels. For water resistant applications we recommend to apply a one or two component PUR adhesive (without the special fleece) onto the polyester backside.
Adhesives ::
| 01. Titebond "GREEN Choice" heavy duty construction adhesive. |
| 02. Titebond "FAST GRAB" SOLVENT FREE FRP adhesive. |
| 03. Premixed grout and tile adhesive. |
| 04. Acrylic copolymer based tile adhesive. |
| 05. Polyurethane wood glues and PU construction grade adhesives. |
| 06. Wood, parquet, and outdoor carpet adhesives. |
| 07. Highly modified thin-set. Use only after testing. Not recommended where high adhesion is required. |
| 08. Thick latex or acrylic latex type tile adhesive. Use only where air drying can take place. Not recommended for exterior applications. |
| 09. Epoxy. |
| 10. Silicone (with primer only) |
| 11. Construction grade multi-purpose adhesive, Liquid Nails type. |
| 12. Polyester resin with filler. |
Pressing :: Our Thin Flexible Stone Veneer has a natural, rough stone surface with a variation of up to 2 mm. To compensate for tolerance during the pressing in the press, we recommend a silicone membrane to compensate for the height variations of Thin Flexible Stone Veneer Stone. During pressing, it is important to ensure the compression pressure is carefully selected. The pressing time depends upon the chosen glue or adhesive, substrate and temperature.
Cutting Tools ::Flexible Stone Veneer has thin stone layers and can be cut with standard saws, equipped with a special laminate blade. Due to the thin stone layer and the fiber cover on the backside, the down time of the saw is reduced. If Flexible Stone Veneer has been applied to both sides of a panel, it is recommended that the reverse side be scored to avoid splintering. Routing the panels is also a quick solution. For bigger production runs it is recommended to use diamond tools. Commonly used machine cutting speeds in the woodworking industry cannot be exceeded. Dull tools, excessive speed or feed rates will lead to heat from friction, which cause melting of the polyester backing. Flexible Stone Veneer can also be cut with standard long nose metal scissors, water-cooled saw with a diamond blade, circular saws with a carbide blade, masonry disc or metal shears. The cutting of curves works best with long nose shears or on a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) cutting machine.
Surface treatment of Flexible Stone Veneer ::You know Flexible Stone Veneer is a real stone and it's surface is porous, and it has the natural look of slate & quartzite and includes the colours of various minerals. We recommend a sealer to protect this natural look of Flexible Stone Veneer. After installation, we should apply a protective coating or sealer. Flexible Stone Veneers' surface protected by a process of stone surface protection – for example "super mat" or "silk mat" protection for high stress surfaces. These coatings or sealings are applied lightly with a brush, rag or sponge. Flame proofing is also possible by the application of a special chemical on Flexible Stone Veneer Sheets.
Technical & Chemical Analysis ::Thin Flexible Stone Veneer Sheets made by Quartzite Stone
| Flexible Quartzite Stone Veneer | ||||||||
| S.NO | TEST | RESULTS | PROTOCOL | |||||
| 1 | Water Absorption, % by wt | 3.52 | ASTM C-21 | |||||
| 2 | Thermal Expansion (mm) (Change in thickness) | 0.06 | IS-2046 Guidelines | |||||
| 3 | Density, kg/m2 | 1.84 | IS: 12866-1989 Guidelines | |||||
| 4 | Temprature Limits ( °C ) | 190. 0 | IS-2046 Guidelines | |||||
| 5 | Fire Behaviour (mm/mm) (Burn Rate) | 142. 4 | IS:15061 Guideline | |||||
| 6 | Abrasion Resistance (mm) | IS: 9162-1979 | ||||||
| Avg. Wear | 0.9 | |||||||
| Individual Wear (max.) | 1 | |||||||
| 7 | Weight Per Sqare Meter (lbs) | 4.1 | IS: 12866-1966 Guidelines | |||||
| 8 | Back side | Glass fiber fabric in Poleyster resin matrix | ||||||
| Toxic Element (EN-71 Part-3) | ||||||||
| (Migration of Certain Element ) | ||||||||
| S.NO | ELEMENTS | REQUIREMENT (mg / kg) MAX | RESULTS (MG/KG) | |||||
| 1 | Antimony ( as Sb ) | 60 | < 5.0 | |||||
| 2 | Arsenic (as As ) | 25 | < 5.0 | |||||
| 3 | Barium ( as Ba ) | 1000 | 10. 0 | |||||
| 4 | Cadmium ( as Cd ) | 75 | <5.0 | |||||
| 5 | Chromium ( as Cr ) | 60 | <5.0 | |||||
| 6 | Lead ( as Pb ) | 90 | 12. 0 | |||||
| 7 | Mercury ( as Hg ) | 60 | <5.0 | |||||
| 8 | Selenium ( as Se ) | 500 | <5.0 | |||||
| Protocal. As per method en-71 Pt-3-1995 for safety of toys ( Migration of Certain elements method ) | ||||||||
| NOTE :- The sample conforms to requirment of EN-Pt-3+A, :2000 | ||||||||
Applications :: Thin Flexible Stone Veneer is ideal for
| 1. Furniture production. |
| 2. Curved surfaces and columns |
| 3. Metal |
| 4. Lacquered surfaces |
| 5. Concrete |
| 6. Wood |
| 7. Plywood |
| 8. Particle board |
| 9. Ceramic tiles. |
| 10. Drywall |
| 11. MDF (Medium Density Fibreboard). |
| 12. Doors |
| 13. Furniture |
| 14. Exhibition walls |
| 15. Displays and floors. |
| 16. Automotive industry |
| 17. Rail, yachts, retail shops |
| 18. Offices and elevators etc. |
